as　much　industry　to　produce　it；　or　even　to　put　it　into　the　hands　of
  others；　as　may　be　equivalent　to　the　industry　or　labour　required　for
  the　acquisition　of　the　goods　or　wares　or　merchandise；　as　natural　or
  artificial　products；　for　which　it　is　exchanged。　For　if　it　were
  easier　to　procure　the　material　which　is　called　money　than　the　goods
  that　are　required；　there　would　be　more　money　in　the　market　than
  goods　to　be　sold；　and　because　the　seller　would　then　have　to　expend
  more　labour　upon　his　goods　than　the　buyer　on　the　equivalent；　the　money
  coming　in　to　him　more　rapidly；　the　labour　applied　to　the　preparation
  of　goods　and　industry　generally；　with　the　industrial　productivity
  which　is　the　source　of　the　public　wealth；　would　at　the　same　time
  dwindle　and　be　cut　down。　Hence　bank　notes　and　assignations　are　not
  to　be　regarded　as　money；　although　they　may　take　its　place　by　way　of
  representing　it　for　a　time；　because　it　costs　almost　no　labour　to
  prepare　them；　and　their　value　is　based　merely　upon　the　opinion
  prevailing　as　to　the　further　continuance　of　the　previous　possibility
  of　changing　them　into　ready　money。　But　on　its　being　in　any　way　found
  out　that　there　is　not　ready　money　in　sufficient　quantity　for　easy
  and　safe　conversion　of　such　notes　or　assignations；　the　opinion　gives
  way；　and　a　fall　in　their　value　becomes　inevitable。　Thus　the　industrial
  labour　of　those　who　work　the　gold　and　silver　mines　in　Peru　and　Mexico…
  especially　on　account　of　the　frequent　failures　in　the　application　of
  fruitless　efforts　to　discover　new　veins　of　these　precious　metals…　is
  probably　even　greater　than　what　is　expended　in　the　manufacture　of
  goods　in　Europe。　Hence　such　mining　labour；　as　unrewarded　in　the
  circumstances；　would　be　abandoned　of　itself；　and　the　countries
  mentioned　would　in　consequence　soon　sink　into　poverty；　did　not　the
  industry　of　Europe；　stimulated　in　turn　by　these　very　metals；
  proportionally　expand　at　the　same　time　so　as　constantly　to　keep　up　the
  zeal　of　the　miners　in　their　work　by　the　articles　of　luxury　thereby
  offered　to　them。　It　is　thus　that　the　concurrence　of　industry　with
  industry；　and　of　labour　with　labour；　is　always　maintained。
  But　how　is　it　possible　that　what　at　the　beginning　constituted　only
  goods　or　wares；　at　length　became　money？　This　has　happened　wherever　a
  sovereign　as　great　and　powerful　consumer　of　a　particular　substance；
  which　he　at　first　used　merely　for　the　adornment　and　decoration　of
  his　servants　and　court；　has　enforced　the　tribute　of　his　subjects　in
  this　kind　of　material。　Thus　it　may　have　been　gold；　or　silver；　or
  copper；　or　a　species　of　beautiful　shells　called　cowries；　or　even　a
  sort　of　mat　called　makutes；　as　in　Congo；　or　ingots　of　iron；　as　in
  Senegal；　or　Negro　slaves；　as　on　the　Guinea　Coast。　When　the　ruler　of
  the　country　demanded　such　things　as　imposts；　those　whose　labour　had　to
  be　put　in　motion　to　procure　them　were　also　paid　by　means　of　them；
  according　to　certain　regulations　of　commerce　then　established；　as　in　a
  market　or　exchange。　As　it　appears　to　me；　it　is　only　thus　that　a
  particular　species　of　goods　came　to　be　made　a　legal　means　of
  carrying　on　the　industrial　labour　of　the　subjects　in　their　commerce
  with　each　other；　and　thereby　forming　the　medium　of　the　national
  wealth。　And　thus　it　practically　became　money。
  The　rational　conception　of　money；　under　which　the　empirical
  conception　is　embraced；　is　therefore　that　of　a　thing　which；　in　the
  course　of　the　public　permutation　or　exchange　of　possessions
  （permutatio　publica）；　determines　the　price　of　all　the　other　things
  that　form　products　or　goods…　under　which　term　even　the　sciences　are
  included；　in　so　far　as　they　are　not　taught　gratis　to　others。　The
  quantity　of　it　among　a　people　constitutes　their　wealth　（opulentia）。
  For　price　（pretium）　is　the　public　judgement　about　the　value　of　a
  thing；　in　relation　to　the　proportionate　abundance　of　what　forms　the
  universal　representative　means　in　circulation　for　carrying　on　the
  reciprocal　interchange　of　the　products　of　industry　or　labour。*　The
  precious　metals；　when　they　are　not　merely　weighed　but　also　stamped
  or　provided　with　a　sign　indicating　how　much　they　are　worth；　form　legal
  money；　and　are　called　coin。
  *Hence　where　commerce　is　extensive　neither　gold　nor　copper　is
  specially　used　as　money；　but　only　as　constituting　wares；　because　there
  is　too　little　of　the　first　and　too　much　of　the　second　for　them　to　be
  easily　brought　into　circulation；　so　as　at　once　to　have　the　former　in
  such　small　pieces　as　are　necessary　in　payment　for　particular　goods　and
  not　to　have　the　latter　in　great　quantity　in　case　of　the　smallest
  acquisitions。　Hence　silver…　more　or　less　alloyed　with　copper…　is　taken
  as　the　proper　material　of　money　and　the　measure　of　the　calculation
  of　all　prices　in　the　great　commercial　intercommunications　of　the
  world；　and　the　other　metals…　and　still　more　non…metalic　substances…
  can　only　take　its　place　in　the　case　of　a　people　of　limited　commerce。
  According　to　Adam　Smith：　〃Money　has　become；　in　all　civilized
  nations；　the　universal　instrument　of　commerce；　by　the　intervention
  of　which　goods　of　all　kinds　are　bought　and　sold　or　exchanged　for　one
  another。〃　This　definition　expands　the　empirical　conception　of　money　to
  the　rational　idea　of　it；　by　taking　regard　only　to　the　implied　form
  of　the　reciprocal　performances　in　the　onerous　contracts；　and　thus
  abstracting　from　their　matter。　It　is　thus　conformable　to　the
  conception　of　right　in　the　permutation　and　exchange　of　the　mine　and
  thine　generally　（commutatio　late　sic　dicta）。　The　definition；
  therefore；　accords　with　the　representation　in　the　above　synopsis　of
  a　dogmatic　division　of　contracts　a　priori；　and　consequently　with　the
  metaphysical　principle　of　right　in　general。
  II。　What　is　a　Book？
  A　book　is　a　writing　which　contains　a　discourse　addressed　by　some　one
  to　the　public；　through　visible　signs　of　speech。　It　is　a　matter　of
  indifference　to　the　present　considerations　whether　it　is　written　by
  a　pen　or　imprinted　by　types；　and　on　few　or　many　pages。　He　who　speaks
  to　the　public　in　his　own　name　is　the　author。　He　who　addresses　the
  writing　to　the　public　in　the　name　of　the　author　is　the　publisher。　When
  a　publisher　does　this　with　the　permission　or　authority　of　the
  author；　the　act　is　in　accordance　with　right；　and　he　is　the　rightful
  publisher；　but　if　this　is　done　without　such　permission　or　authority；
  the　act　is　contrary　to　right；　and　the　publisher　is　a　counterfeiter
  or　unlawful　publisher。　The　whole　of　a　set　of　copies　of　the　original
  document　is　called　an　edition。
  The　Unauthorized　Publishing　of　Books　is　Contrary　to　the
  Principles　of　Right；　and　is　Rightly　Prohibited。
  A　writing　is　not　an　immediate　direct　presentation　of　a　conception；
  as　is　the　case；　for　instance；　with　an　engraving　that　exhibits　a
  portrait；　or　a　bust　or　cast　by　a　sculptor。　It　is　a　discourse　addressed
  in　a　particular　form　to　the　public；　and　the　author　may　be　said　to
  speak　publicly　by　means　of　his　publisher。　The　publisher；　again；　speaks
  by　the　aid　of　the　printer　as　his　workman　（operarius）；　yet　not　in　his
  own　name；　for　otherwise　he　would　be　the　author；　but　in　the　name　of　the
  author；　and　he　is　only　entitled　to　do　so　in　virtue　of　a　mandate
  given　him　to　that　effect　by　the　author。　Now　the　unauthorized　printer
  and　publisher　speaks　by　an　assumed　authority　in　his　publication；　in
  the　name　indeed　of　the　author；　but　without　a　mandate　to　that　effect
  （gerit　se　mandatarium　absque　mandato）。　Consequently　such　an
  unauthorized　publication　is　a　wrong　committed　upon　the　authorized
  and　only　lawful　publisher；　as　it　amounts　to　a　pilfering　of　the　profits
  which　the　latter　was　entitled　and　able　to　draw　from　the　use　of　his
  proper　right　（furtum　usus）。　Unauthorized　printing　and　publication　of
  books　is；　therefore；　forbidden…　as　an　act　of　counterfeit　and　piracy…
  on　the　ground　of　right。
  There　seems；　however；　to　be　an　impression　that　there　is　a　sort　of
  common　right　to　print　and　publish　books；　but　the　slightest
  reflection　must　convince　any　one　that　this　would　be　a　great　injustice。
  The　reason　of　it　is　found　simply　in　the　fact　that　a　book；　regarded
  from　one　point　of　view；　is　an　external　product　of　mechanical　art　（opus
  mechanicum）；　that　can　be　imitated　by　any　one　who　may　be　in　rightful
  possession　of　a　copy；　and　it　is　therefore　his　by　a　real　right。
  But；　from　another　point　of　view；　a　book　is　not　merely　an　external
  thing；　but　is　a　discourse　of　the　publisher　to　the　public；　and　he　is
  only　entitled　to　do　this　publicly　under　the　mandate　of　the　author
  （praestatio　operae）；　and　this　constitutes　a　personal　right。　The
  error　underlying　the　impression　referred　to；　therefore；　arises　from　an
  interchange　and　confusion　of　these　two　kinds　of　right　in　relation　to
  books。
  Confusion　of　Personal　Right　and　Real　Right。
  The　confusion　of　personal　right　with　real　right　may　be　likewise
  shown　by　reference　to　a　difference　of　view　in　connection　with
  another　contract；　falling　under