he　great　qualities　of　the　metaphysicians　of　the　eighteenth　century；　with　others　of　a　different　complexion；　admirably　qualifying　him　to　complete　and　correct　their　work。　Bentham　had　not　these　peculiar　gifts；　but　he　possessed　others；　not　inferior；　which　were　not　possessed　by　any　of　his　precursors；　which　have　made　him　a　source　of　light　to　a　generation　which　has　far　outgrown　their　influence；　and；　as　we　called　him；　the　chief　subversive　thinker　of　an　age　which　has　long　lost　all　that　they　could　subvert。　　　　　To　speak　of　him　first　as　a　merely　negative　philosopher　　as　one　who　refutes　illogical　arguments；　exposes　sophistry；　detects　contradiction　and　absurdity；　even　in　that　capacity　there　was　a　wide　field　left　vacant　for　him　by　Hume；　and　which　he　has　occupied　to　an　unprecedented　extent；　the　field　of　practical　abuses。　This　was　Bentham's　peculiar　province：　to　this　he　was　called　by　the　whole　bent　of　his　disposition：　to　carry　the　warfare　against　absurdity　into　things　practical。　His　was　an　essentially　practical　mind。　It　was　by　practical　abuses　that　his　mind　was　first　turned　to　speculation　　by　the　abuses　of　the　profession　which　was　chosen　for　him；　that　of　the　law。　He　has　himself　stated　what　particular　abuse　first　gave　that　shock　to　his　mind；　the　recoil　of　which　has　made　the　whole　mountain　of　abuse　totter；　it　was　the　custom　of　making　the　client　pay　for　three　attendances　in　the　office　of　a　Master　in　Chancery；　when　only　one　was　given。　The　law；　he　found；　on　examination；　was　full　of　such　things。　But　were　these　discoveries　of　his？　No；　they　were　known　to　every　lawyer　who　practised；　to　every　judge　who　sat　on　the　bench；　and　neither　before　nor　for　long　after　did　they　cause　any　apparent　uneasiness　to　the　consciences　of　these　learned　persons；　nor　hinder　them　from　asserting；　whenever　occasion　offered；　in　books；　in　parliament；　or　on　the　bench；　that　the　law　was　the　perfection　of　reason。　During　so　many　generations；　in　each　of　which　thousands　of　educated　young　men　were　successively　placed　in　Bentham's　position　and　with　Bentham's　opportunities；　he　alone　was　found　with　sufficient　moral　sensibility　and　self…reliance　to　say　to　himself　that　these　things；　however　profitable　they　might　be；　were　frauds；　and　that　between　them　and　himself　there　should　be　a　gulf　fixed。　To　this　rare　union　of　self…reliance　and　moral　sensibility　we　are　indebted　for　all　that　Bentham　has　done。　Sent　to　Oxford　by　his　father　at　the　unusually　early　age　of　fifteen　　required；　on　admission；　to　declare　his　belief　in　the　Thirty…nine　Articles　　he　felt　it　necessary　to　examine　them；　and　the　examination　suggested　scruples；　which　he　sought　to　get　removed；　but　instead　of　the　satisfaction　he　expected　was　told　that　it　was　not　for　boys　like　him　to　set　up　their　judgment　against　the　great　men　of　the　Church。　After　a　struggle；　he　signed；　but　the　impression　that　he　had　done　an　immoral　act；　never　left　him；　he　considered　himself　to　have　committed　a　falsehood；　and　throughout　life　he　never　relaxed　in　his　indignant　denunciations　of　all　laws　which　command　such　falsehoods；　all　institutions　which　attach　rewards　to　them。　　　　　By　thus　carrying　the　war　of　criticism　and　refutation；　the　conflict　with　falsehood　and　absurdity；　into　the　field　of　practical　evils；　Bentham；　even　if　he　had　done　nothing　else；　would　have　earned　an　important　place　in　the　history　of　intellect。　He　carried　on　the　warfare　without　intermission。　To　this；　not　only　many　of　his　most　piquant　chapters；　but　some　of　the　most　finished　of　his　entire　works；　are　entirely　devoted：　the　'Defence　of　Usury'。　the　'Book　of　Fallacies'；　and　the　onslaught　upon　Blackstone；　published　anonymously　under　the　title　of　'　A　Fragment　on　Government'；　which；　though　a　first　production；　and　of　a　writer　afterwards　so　much　ridiculed　for　his　style；　excited　the　highest　admiration　no　less　for　its　composition　than　for　its　thoughts；　and　was　attributed　by　turns　to　Lord　Mansfield；　to　Lord　Camden；　and　（by　Dr。　Johnson）　to　Dunning；　one　of　the　greatest　masters　of　style　among　the　lawyers　of　his　day。　These　writings　are　altogether　original；　though　of　the　negative　school；　they　resemble　nothing　previously　produced　by　negative　philosophers；　and　would　have　sufficed　to　create　for　Bentham；　among　the　subversive　thinkers　of　modern　Europe；　a　place　peculiarly　his　own。　But　it　is　not　these　writings　that　constitute　the　real　distinction　between　him　and　them。　There　was　a　deeper　difference。　It　was　that　they　were　purely　negative　thinkers；　he　was　positive：　they　only　assailed　error；　he　made　it　a　point　of　conscience　not　to　do　so　until　he　thought　he　could　plant　instead　the　corresponding　truth。　Their　character　was　exclusively　analytic；　his　was　synthetic。　They　took　for　their　starting…point　the　received　opinion　on　any　subject；　dug　round　it　with　their　logical　implements；　pronounced　its　foundations　defective；　and　condemned　it：　he　began　de　novo；　laid　his　own　foundations　deeply　and　firmly；　built　up　his　own　structure；　and　bade　mankind　compare　the　two；　it　was　when　he　had　solved　the　problem　himself；　or　thought　he　had　done　so；　that　he　declared　all　other　solutions　to　be　erroneous。　Hence；　what　they　produced　will　not　last；　it　must　perish；　much　of　it　has　already　perished；　with　the　errors　which　it　exploded：　what　he　did　has　its　own　value；　by　which　it　must　outlast　all　errors　to　which　it　is　opposed。　Though　we　may　reject；　as　we　often　must；　his　practical　conclusions；　yet　his　premises；　the　collections　of　facts　and　observations　from　which　his　conclusions　were　drawn；　remain　for　ever；　a　part　of　the　materials　of　philosophy。　　　　　A　place；　therefore；　must　be　assigned　to　Bentham　among　the　masters　of　wisdom；　the　great　teachers　and　permanent　intellectual　ornaments　of　the　human　race。　He　is　among　those　who　have　enriched　mankind　with　imperishable　gifts；　and　although　these　do　not　transcend　all　other　gifts；　nor　entitle　him　to　those　honours　'above　all　Greek；　above　all　Roman　fame'；　which　by　a　natural　reaction　against　the　neglect　and　contempt　of　the　ignorant；　many　of　his　admirers　were　once　disposed　to　accumulate　upon　him；　yet　to　refuse　an　admiring　recognition　of　what　he　was；　on　account　of　what　he　was　not；　is　a　much　worse　error；　and　one　which；　pardonable　in
  the　vulgar；　is　no　longer　permitted　to　any　cultivated　and　instructed　mind。　　　　　If　we　were　asked　to　say；　in　the　fewest　possible　words；　what　we　conceive　to　be　Bentham's　place　among　these　great　intellectual　benefactors　of　humanity；　what　he　was；　and　what　he　was　not；　what　kind　of　service　he　did　and　did　not　render　to　truth；　we　should　say　he　was　not　a　great　philosopher；　but　he　was　a　great　reformer　in　philosophy。　He　brought　into　philosophy　something　which　it　greatly　needed；　and　for　want　of　which　it　was　at　a　stand。　It　was　not　his　doctrines　which　did　this；　it　was　his　mode　of　arriving　at　them。　He　introduced　into　morals　and　politics　those　habits　of　thought　and　modes　of　investigation；　which　are　essential　to　the　idea　of　science；　and　the　absence　of　which　made　those　departments　of　inquiry；　as　physics　had　been　before　Bacon；　a　field　of　interminable　discussion；　leading　to　no　result。　It　was　not　his　opinions；　in　short；　but　his　method；　that　constituted　the　novelty　and　the　value　of　what　he　did；　a　value　beyond　all　price；　even　though　we　should　reject　the　whole；　as　we　unquestionably　must　a　large　part；　of　the　opinions　themselves。　　　　　Bentham's　method　may　be　shortly　described　as　the　method　of　detail；　of　treating　wholes　by　separating　them　into　their　parts；　abstractions　by　resolving　them　into　Things；　classes　and　generalities　by　distinguishing　them　into　the　individuals　of　which　they　are　made　up；　and　breaking　every　question　into　pieces　before　attempting　to　solve　it。　The　precise　amount　of　originality　of　this　process；　considered　as　a　logical　conception　　its　degree　of　connexion　with　the　methods　of　physical　science；　or　with　the　previous　labours　of　Bacon；　Hobbes　or　Locke　　is　not　an　essential　consideration　in　this　pace。　Whatever　originality　there　was　in　the　method　　in　the　subjects　he　applied　it　to；　and　in　the　rigidity　with　which　he　adhered　to　it；　there　was　the　greatest。　Hence　his　interminable　classifications。　Hence　his　elaborate　demonstrations　of　the　most　acknowledged　truths。　That　murder；　incendiarism；　robbery；　are　mischievous　actions；　he　will　not　take　for　granted　without　proof；　let　the　thing　appear　ever　so　self…evident；　he　will　know　the　why　and　the　how　of　it　with　the　last　degree　of　precision；　he　will　distinguish　all　the　different　mischiefs　of　a　crime；　whether　of　the　first；　the　second　or　the　third　order；　namely；　1。　the　evil　to　the　sufferer；　and　to　his　personal　connexions；　2。　the　danger　from　example；　and　the　alarm　or　painful　feeling　of　insecurity；　and　3。　the　discouragement　to　industry　and　useful　pursuits　arising　from　the　alarm；　and　the　trouble　and　resources　which　must　be　expended　in　warding　off　the　danger。　After　this　enumeration；　he　will　prove　from　the　laws　of　human　feeling；　that　even　the　first　of　these　evils；　the　sufferings　of　the　immediate　victim；　will　on　the　average　greatly　outweigh　the　pleasure　reaped　by　the　offender；　much　more　when　all　the　other　evils　are　taken　into　account。　Unless　this　could　be　proved；　he　would　account　the　infliction　of　punishment　unwarrantable；　and　for　taking　the　trouble　to　prove　it　formally；　his　defence　is；　'there　are　truths　which　it　is　necessary　to　prove；　not　for　their　own　sakes；　because　they　are　acknowledged；　but　that　an　opening　may　be　made